Firewood, charcoal or electricity? Gender gaps in cooking, heating, and lighting energy use in Zambia

While access to clean, affordable energy is crucial for well-being and sustainable development, energy poverty persists in developing countries. We examine the determinants and gender gaps in household energy use in Zambia across four key activities—cooking, heating, lighting, and boiling water—focusing on the most commonly used fuels: charcoal, electricity, firewood, and candles. Using survey data from 1779 households and nonlinear Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition methods, we find that education, income, and housing tenure are significant predictors of energy choices, with distinct gender patterns. Female-headed households—defined by a female decision-maker—are significantly more likely to use charcoal for cooking, heating, and boiling water, and to use candles for lighting. This pattern reflects a combination of socioeconomic disadvantages and structural constraints. By comparison, male-headed households predominantly use electricity, largely reflecting higher education and income among male decision-makers. Gender differences in firewood use are insignificant, though structural factors predominate. Robustness checks using Fairlie decomposition confirmed these gendered gaps stem from both resource endowments and behavioral norms. These findings underscore the need for gender-targeted policies that combine women's economic empowerment through education and income-generating opportunities, with infrastructure investments and affordability mechanisms to support equitable transition to clean energy in low-income contexts.