Life cycle assessment of scaled-up pyrite-based solid-state batteries for energy storage applications

The growing demand for sustainable and safer energy storage solutions has driven increased interest in emerging battery technologies. While liquid-based lithium-ion batteries are widely adopted, concerns over safety, environmental impact, and the scarcity of critical raw materials have prompted a shift toward solid-state alternatives. With higher energy density, greater inherent stability, and improved sustainability, solid-state batteries present a compelling alternative. However, quantitative assessments of their environmental impacts across different life cycle phases remain limited. Existing studies focus on transportation applications using lab-scale production data, leaving the life cycle impacts of solid-state batteries for large-scale energy storage underexplored. This study conducts a life cycle assessment to evaluate the environmental performance of pyrite-based solid-state batteries with scaled-up production for energy storage applications, considering cradle-to-gate and cradle-to-use phases. Key environmental impact indicators, including global warming potential, ecotoxicity, smoke and fog, and crustal scarcity indicator, are analyzed across five scenarios incorporating different battery performance metrics. Additionally, a sustainable and lower-impact development path is proposed by linking environmental performance with battery use-phase parameters across various application scales, from general-purpose storage to grid-level systems. Results indicate that under the U.S. energy mix, the global warming potential can be reduced by 35 %, while overall environmental impacts across the selected categories can be lowered by 50 % through optimized energy sourcing, improved battery chemistry, and strategic usage patterns.